Educational psychology Essay Example for Free

Educational psychology EssayOne of the foundations issues of today is on context of pedagogics. Many gentility conventions have been organized to discuss on matters relevant on the development of schoolingal goals and programs. Education should be considered as one factor in the development of man as the most significant since it brings all breakthroughs in all walks of life. From the time of primitive education to the medieval period, education has been playing a great role in the lives of every citizen and the state in general. The very first task of educational contenders was and is to tick off educational development goals.The challenge of all educational institutions today is to produce a curriculum that will earn high productivity as in lifelong education. The institution should be more focused on creating opportunities where learners can exercise their abilities and potentials. There must be that sense of self-education in baffle for them to perform better jobs in t he satisfying world because their education is gained not only by mere transfer of instruction but through applying their skills into the real life setting. Today, people are conscious of searching for breakthroughs be it scientific, cultural, or educational, in differentiate to improve the quality of life.This is one goal in education that must be taken in to account from time to time because it is through this that improvements and developments take place. Along with these breakthroughs, rapid changes in the societys modal value of life bring a lot of conflicts in the human life. By conflict, man faces several challenges that will test his true capacity and knowledge in resolving his own issues. That is, by inculcating in the learners the culture of being sensitive to the needs of the people and the nation brings a lot of pressure in our educational today.People are not trained to satisfy themselves but to see to it that the whole nation can benefit what one person is enjoying bring out of something. However, in the advent of different educational programs and projects, long consideration education program is still best to be implemented. This is in response to different curriculum reforms to wee quality delivery of instruction. The national government through the education department, has been looking for ways and means in order to help sustain these long term programs in order to provide a standard and suitable curriculum for every Filipino and attain progress in the academe.Moreover, the Department of Education has located the three millenary development goals to help attain the Education for All by the year 2015. These goals include accessibility, quality, and sustainability. These goals will help improve the number of Filipino children to be in school and complete their education as prescribed by them of their age and as mandated by the constitution of which education is a right. These millennium development goals of the Education for All (EFA) enable schoolchildren to harness their faculties in improving their way of life and participate in the development process in educational reform and societal progress.According to the UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education, Russian Federation, education will become a social institute providing people with various educational opportunities. With this end in view school and university curricula should be diversified to enable everyone to make up their own educational trajectory in compliancy with their aptitudes, thus creating the basis to implement the principle Education for all. Thus, in the Philippines various projects have been undertaken in order to qualify the implementation the Education for All.These projects include madrasah (for Moslem schoolchildren), Education for Indigenous Peoples, inclusion of values education in the curriculum, strengthening the higher order thinking skills type of questions in every learning area, the implementation of National A chievement Test (a standardized test), the participatory school improvement planning, the integration of information and communications technology in education (ICT4E), the decentralization of management including the downloading of maintenance and other operating expenses (MOOE) to specific schools, and the conduct of various trainings and national competency examinations.These are some of the approaches in order to carry out the implementation of Education for All. Nevertheless, Article XIV of the 1987 Philippine Constitution cited that the Department of Education as the only agency in the Philippine government, responsible for education and manpower development. It further stated that the state shall protect and promote the right of every citizen to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate move to make education accessible to all.This is still in line with the context that education is a right and is for all. Whether a schoolchild is in the formal or non-formal education, what matters most is his assumption of his respective role in the society, the virtues he shall live with, and the use of his capabilities in attaining the long term goal in education that contributes to the integrality progress and development of the nation.At the end of the day we do realize that the search for an adequately structured educational system, is to secure our lives from the many challenges of the outside world at all sorts. Hence, education in the new society shall be within the context of national development and value formation in order to help build a nation other than ourselves. oo0oo

Traditional Values In Now Essay Example for Free

Traditional Values In Now EssayIn the 1950s, the family was depicted as consisting of a father, a m some other and their children who were or so preferably boys. R bely were in that respect any girls in the shows that were brought on television. The work force were supposed to work and build money that would then be used to bring home what was needed in the house for the wo men to cook in other words the men were seen as bread-winners while the women were the bread hirers. at that place was besides a lot of racism and the difference between colored and white slew was clear-cut-interracial. trades unions were unheard of and those people who did so were discriminated against and even suffered being labeled as step to the forecasts in the society. There were also areas that were segregated specifically for the different races and they could non mix. One was not allowed to live in such areas unless they belonged to the specific race that was allowed. One was labeled a soc ial misfit if set to be a gay or a lesbian. The society went out of its way to discourage such behaviors and practices. It was not so much as preventing the occurrence of such behavior but to hide it from the society. There were benefits provided to married people that were denied the unmarried because they wanted to ensure that they avoided having homosexuals in the society.Since it was a form of deviance there was a cure recommended for it and this was marriage and children. If this failed then one had to pre guide that it was workings (http//www-mcwilliam.com). Due to the huge number of young large(predicate) girls, there was a lot of adoption happening in the 1950s. Women were beaten up by their husbands and also sexually mistreated and it was always depicted that it was their faults In the current practice of non-traditional family value, one finds a lot of single parents and also gay and lesbian marriages in which they adopt to complete the family set-up recommended by the traditional family values. Most of the social problems that are to be found in the current society have been blamed on this breakdown of traditional family values. The presence of families headed by single mothers has been blamed for the increased rate of unemployment, juvenile crime, school dropout and poor health. (http//www.scu.edu). Most families that are led by single women are mostly black families just as was previously during the traditional family value days. They were usually separated from their husbands and it is subdued happening up to date. Up to now, the women are still not seen as equals with men although there have been huge strides taken towards this opinion. Women are still discriminated against economically and also in ground of employment. Although there has been an increased awareness of the homosexual marriages, it is still frowned upon by society. This has led to the formation of heterogeneous protest groups that intend to justify their way of life and de al to be respected regardless of their sexual orientation or gender. However, one finds that these people are still not free to express themselves, as they tend to face violent incidences when come across people who do not conform to the changes taking place. In America, a huge percentage of black men render themselves unable to perform the traditional male roles in the family and hence become irrelevant. They are usually involved in drug abuse and various forms of violence and more often than not end up being imprisoned thus increasing the number of households headed by black women. The problems that the black friendship faces are blamed on their departure from the traditional family values but the more they are blamed the more remote their chances for returning to the traditional family values become. Nowadays, there is an increase in the number of single white mothers and there is increased concern over this new phenomenon yet when it was about black mothers not much was done to prevent its increase. The traditional value of having a nuclear family that includes two parents and children is being exercised even in homosexual unions. They have gone so far as legalizing their unions through marriages and in the recent years they are even wedding in church. Due to the various advances made in the scientific field, these couples can end up having their own children and if this is not desirable or possible for them, they adopt a child from the welfare system (http//bad.eserver.org). In assay to show that homosexuals are not really normal, they are depicted even by the media as people with awkward traits like men who have effeminate traits and women who strive to look and behave like men. Although society is accepting some of the changes taking place in the society, some parts of the society are still very much attached to the values that were to be found in the society are very much attached to the values that were to be found in the traditional families. Thes e are usually those who benefited from the practice of such values. These people include mostly white, married heterosexual men. They are the people who fight most for the reintroduction and reinforcement of the traditional families values. In the traditional family values, men and especially white men were treated differently from other people and also treated other people differently. The traditional values were racist and sexist and favoured the white men who looked down on the white women and other races as being inferior to them (Leed D. H. Schaninger C. M. pg 3-6) There has been an increase in the number of interracial marriages and they are becoming accepted although some are still staunchly against them. This has affected the family structure in that there is now the introduction of children who are not purely of one race. This then makes them unable to be able to look down on any race, as they do not belong to any specific race. Among these group of people racism is very m inimal if any and this is a huge improvement in regards to social cohesion. It has led to the melting pot theory in the United States. The adoptive strategy that was practiced in the traditional family when a girl got pregnant out of wedlock has reduced, as more women prefer to become single parents instead of giving their children up for adoption. By empowering women financially, it has liberated them to be able to make choices on how to lead their lives. Previously women were supposed to listen to their husbands wishes and do their best to help them achieve their dreams. This has changed to enabling women to achieve their dreams and to succeed where men had dominated before. It has allowed them to make decisions to live their lives even in the absence of a man in their lives. By incorporating some traditional values in the non-traditional families there is a sense of stability introduced in the society and also liberation of people like marriages. When some disruptive values like racism are abandoned it leads to increased harmony in the society and the issue is striking the right balance between the two ways of life.Reference Barlow A. Probert R. 2004 Regulating Marriage and Cohabitations Changing Family Values and Policies in Europe and North America- An Introductory Critique Law Policy pg 1-11.Lee D.H. Schaninger C.M 2002 Altitudinal and Consumption Differences Among Traditional and Non-traditional Childless brace Households Henry Stewart Publications New York USAMc William peter 1996 Aint Nobodys Business If You Do Traditional Family Values Retrieved on seventeenth October 2007 fromhttp//mcwilliams.com/books/aint/404.htmPerry T.L 2007 Family Values, Race, Feminism and Public Policy Retrieved on 17th October 2007 fromhttp//www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/other/lawreview/familyvalues.htmlSandell J. March 1994 issue 12 The Cultural Necessity of Queer Families To a legitimate Extent 1993 really was the year of the queer.http//bad.eserver.org/issues/1994/ 12/sandell.htm

Taxation System In Pakistan

Taxation System In PakistanTaxation in Pakistan is a very complex arranging of rules including more than 70 different assess revenue revenuees and virtually 37 different giving medication agencies administer the measureation system. Around 10 million the great unwashed are registered to pay imposees but exclusively 1.9 million throng pay taskes 1. In 2002, Transparency International studied 256 respondents, among which 99% were facing corruption regarding to revenue. Furthermore, 32% of respondents were paying bribes to lower their appraise assessment, and some 14% reported receiving fictitious valuate revenue assessments 2. Pakistan is unmatched of the developing countries where tax to GDP ratio is very low. (Exhibit 1)From 1947 the sales tax was introduced at provincial direct which was covering a limited area of commercial activities. In 1951 it was converted into a federal tax in 1951. The Government of Pakistan setup a internal Tax Reforms Commission in 1985 to provide recommendations to cleanse the taxation system in Pakistan. The Commission submitted its final report in December 1986. As a result, the Sales Tax Act was introduced in 1990, it was a value added version named as General Sales Tax (GST). In 1995-96, GST was transformed into a pure(a) tubful mode tax with its basic structures. In 1997-98 the tax base was extended to importers, retailers and wholesalers. GST was only covering the goods before 1990, which later on covered the serve sector withal. Tax prayer was improverd from 1990s to 2000s draw ining US$ 2.67 billion in the recent years.Comparing With Some Similar Economies 3The Indian preservation is the 2nd fastest growing miserliness of the public and 12thlargest in term of exchange come in. Although, India does non contrive impressive track record in the growing of revenues, rising from6.8% of GDP in 1950s to 10.3% in 1990s and maximum of 12.9% in 2009. But the important thing is that the tax-to-GDP rati o is increasing constantly from 2004 onward. On the other hand, tax-to-GDP ratio in Pakistan has a declining trend from peak 13.2% to 8.9 in 2009. (Exhibit 2)Sri Lanka has been facing a worsened right and order situation since early 80sand economy of Sri Lanka showed a very low GDP growth. Although, tax revenues as compared to GDP has decreased in Sri Lanka but still they have high treasure of 14.3% which is higher(prenominal) than Pakistan. Sri Lanka has coped with the problems in economy by focusing on its Tea exports, Tourism sector. Furthermore, political relation has also tried to improve the revenue collection. (Exhibit 3).Sweden is considered to have highest tax-to-GDP ratio in the world. Tax revenues in Sweden have touched a highest level over 50% of GDP. The personal income tax rate is highest in Sweden which is about 56.4%. Tax rate is progressive for the personal income in Sweden plot of ground in Pakistan we are facing a regressive taxation. (Exhibit 4)Reasons of low tax to GDP ratio in Pakistan at that place are several reasons why we are un sufficient to collect the tax. Corruption is one of the important aspects which are casting great hindrance in taxation system. Other important reason is low literacy rate, which is very low as compared to many countries in the world.(Exhibit-5Literacy).Demography of a country also play an important place in the tax to GDP ratio. Pakistan has about 36.7% population which is 14 years of age or below. Hence working class is not growing to pay off taxes. Terrorism, law and order situation, poverty and unemployment are also playing important role in low tax collection. Tax base in Pakistan is invariable at 1%, on the other hand tax base in USA is about 24% and it is 20% in Malaysia. Tax constitution is also not suitable in order to generate taxes and to extend the tax net. Another problem that we are facing is documentation of economy nearly 52% of our economy is undocumented. Audit and enforcement is so w eak in Pakistan that the audit agencies themselves are involved in corruption. Looking at different sectors, we can actualize agriculture has above 20% share in GDP but tax collected from this sector are only 1% of total tax collection. In this way of life contribution of different sectors is not prissyly distributed. Political influence is also a big hurdle in the taxation system. 4 main Concern of Pakistans Tax PolicyGovernment collect taxes from its people in order to spend the collection on the welfare of its people which includes national defense, debt go and other welfare tie in issues. While designing the tax policy a country should account the equity and unlessice for its people because a system is most effective when it is designed on the bases of equal and fair treatment of each tax-payer. But in case of Pakistan the situation is bit different, as a nation we are in debt by the foreign and domestic lenders which is due to our extra expenses incurred due to recent war on terror, our habit of corruption at national and international level and we are also tax averse society in which we dont feel ourselves responsible to pay taxes.Our current tax collection system is very weak which comprises of loopholes in the system accompanied by the corruption of Federal Board of Revenue (FBR) officers which speaks about the justice and equity of our government officials for their people 5. After analyzing the height of corruption, special favor given to government officials or their friends, our undocumented economy and failure to increase tax net it has acquire necessary for any lender to set the target in order to continue the funds lending and to make sure that their borrowed money can be repaid by the borrower.Initially the foreign lenders did not set any targets for us because they somehow believed in our commitments and also felt that we ordain pay them back their money as per the signed agreement but after the several failures of debt servicing, len ders started to analyze the root cause of this issue in which they found our tax collection system complied with old methodology of taxation i.e. General Sales Tax (GST) in which all the tax collected at the last stage which makes them aware of the event that as a corrupt nation and low tax net economy it provide become more difficult for them to collect their lent beat from us which lead IMF to set targets for us6.The reason they feel our system is outdated because now most of the countries in the world including the developing countries are eliminating the loopholes in tax collection system by introducing the Value Added Tax (VAT) and by increasing the tax net through VAT. Now the question arises what are the reasons for government to practise the rules set by International Monetary Fund (IMF). Firstly, we do not have enough liable system and funds by which we can dish out our economy because of which we need IMFs support so that we can run our affairs smoothly. Secondly, ref orming Pakistani taxation certain actions such as reestablishment of the State Tax Organization, restructuring the law of direct taxation, introducing and implementing the value added tax, as a complimentary to the reformation of the existing law of directtaxation and as an efficient and co-ordinate tool with the stinting situation of the country has been taken in to account. Also, In General Sales Tax (GST) which is based on the percentage of sales, State loses 100 percent when somebody evades tax whereas in Value Added Tax (VAT), a taxation system in which tax is applied in production process whenever the value is added to the product, if tax is evaded at one value sum total stage government loses only some part of the taxAnother reason for suggesting implementation of the value added tax is that, it is a suitable substitute for many other duties and indirect taxes, which has vast distortion effectson the productive sectors and on the welfare and behavior of the consumers. defau lt of the indirect taxes and duties causesgreat decrease in the government revenues. Thus, the value added tax, in addition to compensating the income decrease of the government, can also increase the government taxrevenues.VAT also justifies itself more effectively because by implementing VAT it will result in the increase of tax revenues and also stand by to decrease the pressure on taxation for production sector also better for the investment by the adjustments in the income tax rates. It will also digest the time and costs related to tax collection and also bring the sense of participation among the peoples 7.On the proposal for introducing VAT in Pakistan by the government officials there was a Brobdingnagian resistance from the opposition parties because the main negative effect of VAT in economy of Pakistan is the need of accounting which needs to be done which will also effect on the accounting which business might need to perform. It affects small businesses because such business may lack in terms of accounting practised peoples in order to track the tax of business.It is also highlighted by opposition that VAT will also result as a regressive tax policy in which rich person will get a fair deal by transferring their tax burden upon the poor people which will ultimately cost a lot for the poorer one but after analyzing the research paper of so many author we came to understanding that initially at the time of imposing VAT for the first time such problems do occur but there are also some ways by which government can address these issues. And it is also the reason that some of the critics of VAT states that it will also lead to inflationary price level which will evil the economy as a whole but this is not as much true because the rationale behind VAT states that it will create the deflationary effect on the economy which will result in stable or low price as the time passes. And to respond the previous critic of VAT about being regressive policy, we can compensate the low salary class of people by introducing new tax policies which could help them oddly 8.The main concern of Pakistans tax policy is to increase the tax revenue which can only be done through applying VAT in which tax can be collected at every level whenever the value has been added. Its positive effects are more as compare to the reasons for resistance which government is facing in order to reinforce it and these resistance are natural because if we see other countries who are same as Pakistan have also face up the similar kind of issues while implying their tax system from GST to VAT and not just that but also we are running out of funds for which we have to comply with the requirement of Foreign Lenders i.e. IMF so that we can manage our economical issues comfortably.In the long run perspective, the VAT will not just increase our tax net but also make us self sufficient in terms of managing our self and we will also be able to service our debts which will results us as a freedom from the loan from IMF in the coming time period.Only critical fact which needs to be address while setting the tax policy on VAT is the corruption related matters which can be minimized by the VAT by its own self but government should also take some initiative while dealing with VAT implementation face because its more balmy and possible to cheat if VAT is the system but on the other hand it will just miss the percent of Value Addition while on the other hand GST miss the whole hit if the tax payers manage to get rid of tax.Comparison of Complex VAT with Simpler GSTAs we know, in GST, tax is charged as a fixed rate at the end of supply chain where as in Value Added Tax system, tax is charged at every value addition stage so suppliers/vendors in the middle stages of production can evade tax by not registering with Financial Bureau of statistics. In VAT system, for example If a stage two supplier is not registered with FBR and supplies goods to third level in value addition and FBR takes information about the production of good from level three vendor, the tax evader at level will be tracked sooner or later. The world experience has showed that VAT induces a strong tax culture. Under GST system, due to tax evasion, tax gap in 2010-2011 was 79 percent 9. One way to stop formations from evading tax is heavily penalizing them. For example if the organization has already filed a tax return and fails to pay the tax liability or evades it should be penalized on daily basis. If a person registered with VAT fails to file return, under section 88 of the Federal VAT Bill 2010, value added tax liability will increase. If the tax return is not filed within fifteen days of due date, the supplier would have a penalty of Rs.1, 000/- for every day of default. Penalties on failing to pay the taxes would help collecting tax and there would be an incentive for organizations to pay taxes on time because if they do not they will be charged more 10. Also the suppliers in the supply chain who are not registered with FBR will not be in a position to claim the tax paid at purchase levels. The in-built invoice based credit of VAT will promote economic documentation. Tax invoice is the most important and epoch-making feature of VAT-induced documentation. VAT has self-assessment features and records business transactions through tax invoicing.Today Pakistan is facing a problem of undocumented and black economy. More than 30 %, measured by electricity consumption approach, of Pakistans total economy is undocumented resulting in low tax revenues which in turn results in increasing tax rate and increasing tax burden on people who fairly pay their tax dues 11 see exhibit 7. VAT, with its features of penalizing and mandatory documentation of business activity, will help eradicate the norm of black economy from the nation.When in 2010 implementation of VAT was proposed, online registration of tax payers was also proposed. Difficult and rigor ous registration is also one reason of people and businessmen not registering for tax. Historically as well as in present registration, under GST, has been a troublesome process because of which people avoid it hence huge amount of revenue is lost by government. If VAT is introduced, registration would become easy and those who do not register just because of the complicated process would start listing themselves which would eventually increase government revenues and its ability to pay off debt.It is also a general concern of people that the cost of compliance would increase dramatically if the VAT is implemented this however, is not true. There will be no effect or increase in compliance cost of producers already registered/operating under GST regime and will automatically switch to VAT. But the new taxpayers who are not yet registered will have to pay nominal expense for VAT compliance. Because of IT- based VAT processes, cost of VAT compliance usually remains low for the taxpaye rs who release their tax obligations regularly on fair lines. 12One of the reasons Pakistan has not been able to progress as much as other emerging countries have is because of the lack of proper infrastructure, low quality of education, and lack of governments ability to spend on public welfare. Almost all of the tax collected by government is spent on either defense or on debt servicing. The stage has come when Pakistan needs loan to pay its loan payments. With VAT the state would be able to collect more taxes with which Pakistan will be able to repay its loans sooner. Once Pakistan pays off all the loans it will be able to spend on infrastructure and improve quality of education. Better infrastructure and education would attract foreign investments which will increase GDP and eventually increasing the tax base there has been a decrease of more than 3000 million $ from fiscal year 2007-2008 to 2009-20010 in FDI see exhibit 6. According to VAT law there is no difference amid retai lers and wholesalers. It also does not define manufacturer or manufacture. Every person, who is part of the production supply chain, is required to get registered with VAT if he/she is engaged in carrying out business activity of making supplies of taxable goods/services. Under GST only some of the industries are charged tax. For example, cellular services account for more than 80% of the total GST collected, rest of the countrys industries pay less than 20% of the GST revenue.13 See Exhibit 5 . Now one problem could be that organizations tend to avoid taxes oddly when VAT is practiced in the economy. But with the negative effects, payment of taxes has positive consequences as well paying taxes improves the credibility of organization. People tend to purchase from organization that are ethical enough to pay its due taxes, it is most beneficial for small companies. If small organizations mention on their sites that the company is a regular tax payer, it will not just improves its cr edibility but will also enhance its ability to compete with larger firms.Tax refund is also a major problem under GST regime, VAT, however has a solution to it. Under VAT system refunds will be paid through speedy yield Payment System. The system has already been set-up for exporters from the tax period April, 2010 onwards. Under this upgraded system electronic refund payments will be made directly in the bound accounts of the taxpayers. This new refund system will be expanded to cover all other classes of refund claimants in due time. Thus, VAT is the most take over tax system for Pakistan as it has the ability to deal with tax refunds without taking much time, its ability to track un-registered business entities, and its ability to increase government revenues and reduce tax gap.

Contract Strategy And The Contractor Selection Process Construction Essay

Contract Strategy And The Contractor Selection Process Construction EssayContracts are the fundament of the mold solicitude. They are applyd to win people, materials and serfeeblenesss. Main comp angiotensin-converting enzyments in the pinchor alternative process will be outlined in this chapter. This processes are influenced by many factors such as the character of the parties included, be sick sign, and the risk apportionment among the parties.The project is incessantly about achieving a result. The main problem of this that guest ordinarily ho routine non or doesnt wish to endure all in all necessary resources to complete the project from the internal sources. Therefore there is a subscribe to of obtaining resources from external validations in order to master planned results. The method chosen by the leaf node plays the authoritative point. Proper lowstanding of buzz off conditions and the way of administering them is therefore fundamental to the project m anager.Different industries use divergent types of contract in order to achieve desired results. Therefore, standard types of execution-based contracts apply in construction industry are altogether different to the result-based contracts employ in manufacturing, oil and software industries.In addition, the most complex projects can be divided into several different contracts. They can be carried out below angiotensin converting enzyme turn get word contract, as well as can be broken take down into split contracts. Design can be carried out by one contract, site preparation by the second contract, and the service/operation of the completed facility under the third contract. They can be broken down into several contracts based on the skills of the asserter, one organization being answerable for production and installation of all necessary equipment for the plant, second organization being responsible for the site preparation and all construction depart, a third being res ponsible for quality control (external for construction organization), and a fourth being responsible for authorship (to control works going check to the approved blueprint).They can be broken down into small publications of considerable contracts or large numbers of small contracts. Each will give the affirmer advantages as well as the disadvantages. Depending on the temper of the project and the skills, contractor mustiness decide.Finally, different contracts can be operated in different ways. According to metalworker N.J. (2002) there are three different ways in which contract can be operated. The first one of which is price-based contract, under which the contractor responsible to provide service, equipment or materials on the fixed price. On the new(prenominal) hand there is a reimbursable contract, under which contractor is reimbursed with the greet of carrying out the work plus profit. Finally, somewhere between these two is the quantity based or rate based contrac ts.The type of contract or set of contracts should be selected by the thickening only after the consideration of the managers available to manage the contract, project goals and the skills required to achieve them, appropriate allocation of responsibilities and risks and cadence available to carry out the project.Factors instilling the contract strategyA number of factors need to be considered forwards the choosing contract strategy. Responsibilities such as name, construction, quality control, procurement, safety, installation and commissioning need to be determined. The risks also need to be allocated between parties. Then the payment method to contractors, as from this decision figure which contract to use.When making a contract, contractors always wish to restrain it flexible, because during the life cycle of the project changes may occur. However, one more beta factor is that the contracts need to be fair, equitable methods of price changes for instance.However, intere sts of the client and contractor commonly opposed to each opposite. For physical exertion, client carries minimum risk under the lump-sum contract, but contractor carries maximum. And vice versa for cost reimbursable plus percentage fee contract.Almost all of these factors are significant for any project. Nevertheless some of these factors may dominate depending on the temper of a project. If the work is a building a power plant in a river, where during the spring consequence lowest aim of water, time-scale obviously dominate. If the work is building the skyscraper, indeed the quality will dominate. knob have only one chance to choose the correct contract strategy, after deciding this, it can non be changed. There are a plenty of options, and project manager should advice the client which strategy to accept. The selection is definitely one of the most important decisions in any project.Smith N.J. states that the project manager should always remember the three Rs of the con tract. (Figure 1)Figure 1 The three Rs (Smith N.J. 2002)Relationships. Whether being highly structured or not, relationship plays important role in a contact strategy. Unstructured relationship may develop during the life cycle of a project and according to the circumstances. There is no exactly the way under which relationships are managed, they need to be managed individually.Risks. Whatever type of contract strategy choused the client, risks present allwhere. It is important for the client to choose right contract strategy which carries out risks which the client is able to manage. When choosing the contractor, client needs to pay attention on the ability of the contractor organization to manage risks appropriate. By other words, every risk in a project should be divided and managed by each party because if something goes wrong, outcomes strength be drab.Rules. Rules are necessary to keep the relationship in right way. According to the rules, client and contractors make their behavior, and there will not be many conflicts between them.These Rs are closely interrelated. Relationships, risks and rules formalize one word under which the contract will be governed during the life cycle of the project.Contractor selectionAfter the selection of a contract strategy, client needs to select the contractor. The selection of a contractor is a crucial decision made by client. The criteria for selection might be cost, time or quality. Usually the price/cost criteria is dominate as the clients seek the most economic price. However, according to Smith N.J. (2002) dominating of one of these criteria may negatively affect to others.Figure 2 Project objectives (Barnes and Wearne, 1993).This triangle illustrates the conflict between the project objectives. If the client wants to minimize the cost to minimum, it will affect time and quality. The project will be finished with no desired quality and not within the time scale. Oppositely, if the client wish to increase the leve l of quality, then it affects on the one hand to cost (overbudget), on the other time (not within planned time-scale). Therefore, client always need to decide, which objective is crucial for the current project. This triangle shows the basic problem of contract strategy.In the planning of the contract, client need to be sure of reason employing a contractor.Client usually selects a contractor for one or more of the following reasonsTo use the particular management, technical and organizational skills, and expertise of that contractor for the eon of the contract.To use the skills of the contractor after the project has been completed.To have the benefit of the contractors special recourses, such as licensed processes, unique design of manufacturing capability, plant, materials in stock, ect.To get work started quicker than would be possible by recruiting and training direct employees.To get the contractor to take some of the cost risks of a project, usually the risks of planning the economical use of people, plant, materials and sub-contractors.To use the contractor to provide the recourses, both physical and financial, needed for the project.To be free to use his own ( moderate) recourses for other purposes.To encourage the development of potential contractors for the future.To deal with a contractor who is already known to the promoter.Smith N.J. (2002)Whatever the reason, client always should make a decision based on it.N. J. Smith (2002) described cardinal principal considerations of choosing type of contract which has to be made by contractor. Those are discipline, incentive, risk, change, time-scale and relationship. These considerations describe analytical justification of contracts, mainly compared the two price-based and cost based contracts. However, in authors opinion these considerations are actually become an advantages and disadvantages of each form. Therefore, this will be discussed in Chapter 4.According to the M. Brook (1993) the main aim of contractor selection is to feel out the lowest possible price, and the followingA reputation for good quality workmanship and efficient organizationThe ability to complete on timeA strong financial standing with a good business recordThe expertise suited to sizing and type of project.Also he agrees that, not only client has to consider financial ability of contractor, but the contractor needs to make sure that the client is able to pay bills on time. In the past contractors have not been considered this issue. However this has changed with the introduction of bonds and guaranties used by both parties.Usually contractors selected by two or combination of both emulation and talks. When there is an feed competition, local newspapers or journals invite competitors to take part on the cutting. A deposit normally required, in order to distinguish serious offers.Alternatively, put up might be selective. In this type of tender contractors are selected and invited to tender. M. Brook ( 1993) determined three ways in which selective tendering propensitys drawn upAn advertisement may produce several interested contractors and suitable firms are selected to tender.The consultants may contact those they would wish to put on an ad-hoc key out.Many local government activity and national bodies keep approved lists of contractors in certain categories, such as work type and cost range.Contractors which are selected to add into list normally asked to provide their financial and technical performance, particularly on the airfield which is under consideration. Contractors can prepare the answers according to the Standard form of tendering questionnaire private edition written by the National Joint Consultative Committee for Building (NJCC). Questions on it is basically about the projects carried out for last three years. After the limit of questionnaire, it can be used for any advance projects or particular project for which contractor invited as a competitor.On the o ther hand Code of Procedure for angiotensin converting enzyme Stage Selective Tendering written especially for building industry by NJCC. According to this code, project success depends on the finis of design phase sooner tenders invited and the use of standard forms of contract.M. Brook (1993) classifies Code as followsPreliminary enquiry contractors are given the opportunity to decide whether they wish to tender by receiving a preliminary enquiry letter, four to six weeks before the dispatch of tender documents.Number of tenderers the recommended number of tenderers is a maximum of six (three of four for design and build) and further names could be held in reserve.Tender documents the aim of the documents is that all tenders will be received on the same basis so that competition is limited to price only.Time for tendering normally at least four working weeks should be allowed, and more time may be needed depending on the size and complexity of the project.Qualified tenders tenderers should not try to vary the basis of their tenders using qualifications. Queries or unacceptable contract conditions should be raised at least 10 days before tenders are due. The consultants can then tell all the tenderers of their decisions and if necessary extend the time for tendering. A contractor should be asked to withdraw evidentiary qualifications or else face rejection. This is necessary to ensure tenders are received on a like-for-like basis.Withdrawal of tenders a tender may be accepted as long as it remains open a definite period is usually stated in the tender documents. The tenderer may withdraw his offer before its acceptable, under English law.Assessing tenders the tenders should be opened as soon as possible after they are received. Priced bills may be submitted in a separate envelope by all the contractors, or, more likely only the bills of the lowest tenderer will be called for and submitted within four working days. Once the contract has been let, ev ery contractor should be issued with a list of tender prices. Alternatively, tender prices should be given in ascending order and the names listed in alphabetical order. testing and adjustment of priced bills the PQS will treat the information in the tender documents as confidential and report errors in computation to the architect and client. There are two methods for dealing with errors. Alternative one gives the tenderer the opportunity to confirm his offer or withdraw it. Alternative 2 allows the contractor to confirm his offer or amend it to correct genuine errors. If the contractor amends his offer with a revised tender which is no longer the lowest, the tender of the lowest will be considered.Negotiated decline of tender the code of procedure recognizes the needs to look for savings in the cost of a project where the tender exceeds the employers budget. This can be achieved by negotiation with the lowest tenderer, or the next lowest if negotiations fail.Two- stagecoach se lective tendering may be approved by the client, when the contractors involvement is needed at the design phase. The first stage will provide the competitive tender based on bill of quantities according to the preliminary design. The contractor selected at the first stage helps with the design, after completion of which submits documents for the second stage without competition based on the considered price.NJCC published codes for two-stage selection tender and selection tender for design and build. Those are almost same as the Code of Procedure for Single Stage Selective Tendering, exceptClient should consider contractors design and build experience. Number of tenderers reduced to four.The price is not a key issue in the selection of contractors.Significant interdependence between cost, time and quality should be included in clients requirement.During the negotiation stage, contractors selected based on their past experience, performance, recommendation or familiarity with work un der consideration. And only one contractor may be selected to proceed the work.Project administrationOften client employs a design consultant in order to advice on feasibility stage of project, or a project management consultant to advice the strategy and risks. As discussed earlier in previous chapter, it might be appropriate to the client to employ a undivided contractor for the whole project, or a syndicate of companies as well as a two or more separate contractors.Further in this chapter will be discussed different types of project organisation. computer software deal (turnkey, design and generate)According to the OGC report (2007), the main contractor has to be an experienced organisation to bring together all of the parties (design, construction, installation ect.) necessary to bump the clients expectations. Also further information stated in this report There is nothing to prevent a designer, facilities manager, financier or any other organisation from acting as the Prim e Contractor, providing they have suitable ability and experience. Prime Contracting must demonstrate during the initial occupation period that operating cost and performance parameters can be met. It usually includes such features as pain/gain share (where the Prime Contractor as well as the client gains financially by reducing the project costs), target cost pricing (where prices are agreed on the basis of a reasonable profit for the supply team and value for money to the client) and open book accounting (where costs are made transparent to the client).(OGC report, 2007)In this type of arrangement, only one single contractor carries all the responsibility for the project from start to completion. Although main contractor responsible for the procurement, design, construction, equipment supply, installation, commissioning, these works can be sub-contracted to the specialist organizations. The main contractor usually responsible also for financing, design approval, working and state commissions ect.Although being simple, this arrangement has its advantages and disadvantages. The main strengths areEstimating the cost of the project at the early stage may be possible, the clients requirements are knownThe total cost of the project may be reducedEarly completion may be possible as result of design/construction overlapEasier design integrationBetter project organisationClient has to deal with only one organisation for design and constructionFew recourses from the client need to be involved in a projectFewer bitternesss caused by design failure or other defects.WeaknessesClients ability to control the contractor will be lowClients expectations may not be metHighly qualified staff needed to manage the contractorNo or little contact with the sub-contractorsClient in a negative position to introduce changesPackage deal contracts are commonly used in the service and process industries. Where the contractors are much more experienced in this type of contract rather than other types. (other types will be introduced in the next chapter) However package deal contracts are also used in civil engineering field, especially in building standard houses or office blocks. Package deal contracts are very effective when the client wish to start works early, but he has no sufficient recourses and advisors.Build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT)This type of contract requires that con conformationium of companies or single contractor take responsibility to built, own and operate a facility. This usually undertaken by the government for the fixed duration (concession period), during which the client pays contractor (normally monthly). Contractor is completely responsible for the project from start to hand over after the concession period, including gaining necessary finance for the project at the start. At the end of concession period ownership of the facility returns to the client.Separation of design and implementationThis tends to be the traditional contract. In tha t type of contract design separated from the construction. This normally achieved by employing the architect (designer) then the contractor for its construction. Despite the fact that there are many available and useful types of contract, this type of contract is still widely used in building and civil engineering industries. In practice, architect or design company supervises the construction process from the clients side.Smith N.J. (2002) states that, Construction is usually undertaken under a quantities/rates based contract, or occasionally under a lump-sum or reimbursable contract.Management assureManagement contracting is a type of contract where the client employs external organisation to control and manage the design and construction processes. External management organisation itself normally does not take part in any of the works. These are packaged into one or several contracts.When using the management contracting, client establishes the contractual and organisational sy stem which is completely different from the conventional approaches. Management organisation employ by the client becomes a part of its team, therefore involvement of a client in the project increases.According to Smith N.J. (2002) payment for the management organisations staff normally is reimbursable plus fee, oppositely for engineering contracts this usually be a lump-sum or quantity based. The management contractor is appointed early, and it has a considerable involvement in a design process. Other participants such as design and construction contractors are employed in normal way. Management contracts have considerable advantage in a building and civil engineering industries, where traditional contracts can not be used.These advantages are listed below (depending of the needs of a client)Time saving. An early start to the project (political, budgetary or procurement policy reasons)Therefore an early completion of a projectWhen high probability that changes may take place, for instance, high technology or innovative projects.Organisational complexity. When client does not have sufficient resources or does not wish to manage a number of contractors, which may include two or more designers as well as the construction contractors.Although dissertation has a construction emphasis, in authors opinion it would give the additional information about contracts if offshore oil engineering will be discussed as well. offshore oil industry uses the same contracts as a construction industry, except concession contracts. However, industry called each contract in completely different ways. For exampleEPC engineer, procure, construct contractPC procure and construct contractEPIC engineer, procure, install, commission contractPIC procure, install and commission contract.In construction industry EPIC would be considered as a turnkey contract.The only one significant difference of oil industry from others is that oil industry contracts, including EPIC (turnkey equivalen t) contracts, always concentrate in high level of clients involvement on the project.Direct labourUsually clients does non wish to employ external contractors to install or make equipments or construction activities, instead clients may use their in-house recourses, maintenance or construction department for instance. This is known as a direct labour or direct works.Each activity, such as design, construction or equipment installation normally responsibility of different departments within the company. These initial agreements are very standardized to the external contracts, but the conflicts and disputes between departments would be solved in managerial level within the organisation rather than by external legal dispute re final result procedures.Bidding strategyThe tendering process begins with the invitation to tender. (from the contractors point of view).Usually in practice, building contractors does not submit truly competitive tender. After the receiving the invitation, contra ctor must decide whether to accept or decline tender. If contractor accept, competitive request must be submitted, however if the contractor does not accept, thebona fide tender still should be submitted. (definition of bona fide need here).Contractors always faced with to crucial decisions which are, whether or not submit competitive tender, and if so what is the bid price should be.Ansoff (1965) suggested five possible courses of action open for the contractorReject the projectProvisionally accept the projectAdd it to a reverse listRemove a project from the reverse list and replace it with the current projectUnconditional acceptanceHowever Skitmore (1989) pointed out that the limited time available for tender restricts the use of reverse list, therefore normally contractors decide simply from two accept or reject options.Althouh contractor rejected the tender, it does not usually mean that the bid will not be submitted. If the contractor not interested in particular tender, but d oes not wish to reject (once contractor rejected the tender, it may not be invited to tender again), as it may cause problems in the future, contractor can submit the cover price.In practice, the decision whether or not to submit a tender depends on number of factors. According to the CIOB (1983), this decision depend on the type of work under consideration, if the contractor has an appropriate experience in particular area and necessary resources to prepare documents and carry out the work. However other authors agree that the key points in the decision would be the contractors present workload and availability of key personnel.Odusote and Fellows (1992) made significant effort in identifying the most important factors influencing the contractors decision. In this research, authors set 42 considerations which are likely to influence the decision considered by other authors. Then constructed questionnaire and sent them to various building contractors each with a turnover of approxi mately 8m (or higher) per year. Figure 3 below illustrates these factors based on respond of 48 UK building contractors (ranked in order of importance).Client-related factorsType of workValue of the projectContractors current workloadEstimating workloadLikely profitability of the contractLocation of the projectForm of contractPhysical recourses to do the jobIdentity of consultantsTime available to tenderOdusote and Fellows (1992)On the other hand, an American survey handled by Ahmad and Minkarah (1990) identify 31 factors affecting the bidding strategy of outmatch USA companies. Further this list of factors used by Snash (1990) in his study. Snash formulated a questionnaire according to the list of factors, and submitted them to the top UK contractors asking them to rank the most important factor. Finally he received responds from 80 contractors, and the table has been produced based on contractors respond.Figure 4 illustrates the top 20 factors affecting bid/no bid decision.Contra ctors need for workNumber of competitors tenderingExperience in similar projects rate of flow work load owner/client identityContract conditionsProject typePast profit in similar projectsProject sizeTendering method (open/selective)Risk owing to the nature of the workProject locationType of contractAvailability of qualified staffRate of returnProject cash flowTender periodAvailability of other projectsAvailability of labourCompleteness of the documents(Snash 1990)There is some similarity between two studies, however that does not necessary mean every contractor has to consider each factor. Some contractor may consider some, but others may consider completely different factors. Contractor should decide rather bid or no bid in particular project regarding his own status and circumstances. By other words, regarding to evidence (Odusote and Fellows, 1992) it can be said, that for large project, it would be decision of group of people rather than one individual.However, there is an alter native factor affecting bid/no bid decision. Contractors who have a number of contracts (portfolio of projects), can balance their overall risks by deciding to tender particular project. This approach first introduced in the financial sector, which basically says that the contractors can afford the idle projects if the overall risk can be reduced by balancing with the other less risky projects in contractors portfolio. Kangari and Riggs (1988) pointed out that this approach can not be used as successful as in the financial organisations. They concludedDiversification of the project portfolio can generally reduce but noteliminate overall risk exposureBid priceAfter the decision to tender, contractor will be faced by the next important decision which is bid price. Normally contractor estimates the bid price according to the necessary inputs on the process. The management process estimating the level of bid price called adjudication.A significant number of researches have been carrie d out for last 40 years about submitting the best bid price. Different studies concentrated various model of bidding. If one researchers developed the mathematical model, method based on historical data, statistical bidding models and econometric based model, others concentrated on less mathematical models such as human decision-making process.However Moselhi et all. (1993) statesMarkup estimation is a decision problem that is so highly unstructured that it is difficult to analyse and formulate an adequate solution mechanism. It is both time consuming and complicated to identify all the related factors that form a rational basis for such decisions, analyse their individual strength, and then quantify their combined impact on the decision. The usual practice is to make bid decisions on the basis of intuition, derived from mixture of gut feeling, experience and guesses. This implies some sort of pattern recognition is used rather than computation or deep reasoning about the problem el ements.Alternatively, Park and Chapin summarised their research thatMany different speculative approaches to competitive bidding have been proposed and tested with varying results. Any of these strategies should improve the contractors bidding effectiveness, and whichever one works best for a particular competitive positioning is obviously the best one to use. It will be worth whatever time is required to at least become familiar with the different approaches they all offer some good ideas, and even a bad plan is better than no plan at all.Factors considered by contractorsAdjudication is the process about acquire the best possible bid price, during which contractors should consider number of factors. Eastham (1987) identified 90 factors which are likely to affect the bid price. During the research questionnaire had been sent to ten contractors who identified only five most important factors. However those responds had not considered as important as in Easthams research.Subcontrac t requirementsType and size of jobCompetitorsClient and professionalsLabour requirements(Eastham 1987)Snash (1990) also identified factors affecting the bid price. This has been done through formulating the questionnaire.Degree of difficulty of the workRisk owing to the nature of the workCurrent workloadNeed for the workContract conditionsAnticipated cost of liquidated damagesOwner/client identityPast profit in similar work(Snash 1990)

Chylothorax and Superior Vena Cava Syndrome Case Study

Chylothorax and Superior Vena Cava Syndrome Case StudyTitle Chylothorax and Superior Vena Cava Syndrome as the Initial display of Non small Cell Lung Cancer, which was Successfully Resolved by Systemic ChemotherapyWe define a fact say of 35 year grey-headed male presented with precipitancy of breath, dyspnea, heaviness of left chest skirt, engorgement of vein in left look chest wall and swiftness left neck, swelling in left side of the neck, chest pain and cough. At the time of admission, an abnormal round opacity presented in left upper lung lobe and histology shows non-small cell carcinoma with master mineral vein cava syndrome was diagnosed. MSCT run over report heterogeneous enhancing large soft tissue density mass lesion of size approximately 96 100 mm seen in left upper lobe extending in to whole mediastinum encasing all major vessel including arch of aorta, descending aorta, trachea, esophagus, pulmonary trunk,M PA and all major neck vessels origin. Lesion causing s ignificant luminal narrow of left main bronchus. Lesion causing obliteration of left brachio-cephalic. go forth moderate pleural magnification seen. Heterogeneous attenuated right lung dramaturgy is seen due to mosaic perfusion. Left sided thoracocentesis through milky white melted drained from pleural cavity. Ultrasonography channelize FNAC left lung do is suggestive of non-small cell carcinoma. Superior vena cava syndrome associated with lung carcinoma with massive chylothorax. Patient received cisplatin and gemcitabine chemotherapy. After chemotherapy taken chylothorax resolution almost completely.Key words Lung crabmeat squamous cell carcinoma chylothorax superior vena cava syndromeINTRODUCTIONLung cancer in India commonly accounts 80-85% of non-small cell carcinoma. In Acharya tulsi regional cancer treatment and research institute Bikaner hospital squamous cell carcinoma interpretation for 15% of all cases of NSCLC harmonise to registry. In advanced lung cancer chemothe rapy play main role in quality of life and survival. Chylothorax initial symptom of NSCLC is r are but pleural effusion is commonly seen. Chylothorax is mostly seen subsequently complication of lung surgery. But in this case chylothorax is initial presentation with NSCLC with SVC. Incidence of chylothorax is .3-2.4%.3-5. Few report of this disorder in incumbent year2. We report this case of NSCLC with initial appearance with SVC and chylothorax which interruptd almost entirely with chemotherapyCASE REPORTA case report of 35 year old male presented with huskiness of breath, dyspnea, heaviness of left chest wall, engorgement of vein in left side chest wall and upper left neck, swelling in left side of the neck, chest pain and cough. He is heavy smoker for 13 year and also chronic alcohol drinker. Patient vital signs at the time of admission pulse rate is 88 per minute, respiratory rate is 26 per minute, BP is 128/84 and temperature in normal limit. On auscultation breathe sound d ecreased in left side of chest. At the time of admission, an abnormal round opacity presented in left upper lung lobe and histology shows non-small cell carcinoma with superior vena cava syndrome was diagnosed. MSCT scan report heterogeneous enhancing large soft tissue density mass lesion of size approximately 96 100 mm seen in left upper lobe extending in to whole mediastinum encasing all major vessel including arch of aorta,descending aorta, trachea, esophagus, pulmonary trunk,M PA and all major neck vessels origin. Lesion causing significant luminal tapering off of left main bronchus. Lesion causing obliteration of left brachio-cephalic.Left moderate pleural effusion seen.Heterogeneous attenuated right lung field is seen due to mosaic perfusion. sextuple para-esophageal,perigastric, supra-clavicular,superior mediastinum, pre, paratracheal, subcarinal AP window lymphadenopathy are seen,larger measuring approx. 18 mm size. Left sided thoracocentesis done milky white fluid drained from pleural cavity. Ultrasonography guided FNAC left lung done is suggestive of non-small cell carcinoma. Superior vena cava syndrome associated with lung carcinoma with massive chylothorax. Patient received cisplatin and paclitaxil chemotherapy. cisplatin given D1 and D2 schedule. After two cycle chemotherapy taken chylothorax resolve almost completely.Laboratory investigation shows serum creatinine e 1.1 mg /dl, albumin 3.2 mg/dl, total cholesterol 193 mg/dl, serum triglyceride, 93 mg/dl, LDH is 425 IU/l. thoracocentesis done and 2000 ml milky white coloured fluid drained. Milky fluid biochemistry done and shows triglyceride, 867 mg/dl lactate dehydrogenase, 332 IU/l and carcinoembryonic antigen, 6.16 ng/ml.The cytological abstract of fluid revealed no malignant cells. Intercostal tube inserted and fluid is drained and symptom is improved. The clinical stage was T3N2aM0 stage IIIb. Therefore, SCC of the lung complicated by chylothorax and SVCS was diagnosed. . Chemotherapy with paclitaxel (175 mg/m2) and cisplatin (75 mg/m2) was administered on days 1, and cisplatin give in two days in divided dose respectively of six cycle repeat 21-day. The dyspnea and shortness of breath improved after two cycle of chemotherapy and amount of milky fluid drained is gradually tapered in intercostal tube after chemotherapy given. After five cycles chemotherapy patient symptoms improved and neck swelling is disappear and intercostal drained is 230 ml/day so intercostal tube deduce out and remaining one cycles is given. After 6 cycle complete again CECT chest revealed tumor size significantly decreases and also pleural fluid almost disappear but superior vena cava symptoms is minimally improved . Then subsequently, the patient put another chemotherapy with gemcitabine and carboplatin, and radiotherapy is given to chest wall 30 gy 300cGy per fraction total 10 fraction in 2 weeks, but the tumor eventually progressed.DiscussionThe relationship between lung cancer and chylotho rax may occur after compression of tumor to thoracic duct so increase pressure to duct and ruptured 6. Secondly in obstruction in superior vena cava so venous pressure is increased significantly so leakage of chyle from thoracic duct to pleural cavity 7-9. Another Couse of chylothorax is side put together of radiotherapy because after radiotherapy fibrosis is there and diminishing of lymph circulation 10-13. This complication of radiation treatment is also observed in many disease like Hodgkin lymphoma (mantle field technique), squamous cell carcinoma in esophagus, breast carcinoma and also lung carcinoma 10,11, 12, 13, . With out lung surgery chylothorax is rare but this case present chylothorax without surgery. In current year 3 case reported with non small cell carcinoma2,10,14-16.table 1 shows patient have chylothorax with clinical manifestation and resolve after management. In this table include our case report.The leash case report series have 2 male and one female and medi an age af all trine case was 47 yrs. every(prenominal) case non small cell carcinoma sub group is squamous cell carcinoma. Dahlbalk et al.17 shows squamous cell carcinoma of lung cancer present with thorasic duct fluid in pleural cavity and nodular depositation. All case presented with right side lung carcinoma. Pleural fluid cytology present wih malignant cell. Main dominant feature in case is chylothorax and its present in mainly right pleural space.Treatment of chylothorax is mainly frequently repeated aspiration of pleural fluid, low fatty diet, intercostal tube drainage, and pleurodesis with chemical substance. 6,18 running(a) management of chylothorax is thorasic duct ligation and pieuroperitonial shunt are mainly used in when milky coulred fluid is more than 550 ml or more then continues 14 days. In Dahlbalk et al study mainly two case successfully treated with chemical pleurodesis. One patient any intervention not done because general condition is very poor give only p aliiative treatment. If chylothorax associated with cloot in brachiocephalic vein or subclavian and jugular vein is treated with anticoagulant therapy. Beghetti et al8. canvass resistant case of chylothorax associated with superior vena cava syndrome manage with chemotherapy. Our case usual taken four cycle chemotherapy and mostly resoved chylothorax . Thrombus in superior vena cava are correct with treatment of underlying couse. Symptoms of superior vena cava syndrome is extremlly improved with two cycle chemotherapy. It is revealing of a promising response to chemotherapyTable 1 three patients of non-small cell lung cancer presented with ChylothoraxAbbreviationsSCC=squamous cell carcinoma RML=right middle lung RT= radiotherapy C/T=chemotherapy NA=not available

womenant Portrayal of Women in Sophocles Antigone :: Antigone essays

Portrayal of Women in Antigone Although ancient Greece was a male-dominate society, Sophocles work Antigone, portrays women as cosmos strong and capable of making wise decisions. In this famous tragedy, Sophocles uses the characters Ismene and Antigone to show the different characteristics and roles that woman are typical of interpreting. Traditionally women are characterized as namby-pamby and subordinate and Ismene is portrayed in this way. Through the character of Antigone, women finally get to present realistic viewpoints about their character. The sexist stereotypes presented in this tragedy address more perspectives of men at this time. Creon the arrogant and tyrant leader is, the very character that exemplifies this viewpoint. Antigones spirit is filled with bravery, passion and fury which allow her to symbolize the very aggregate of women. She is strong enough to do what her conscious tells her despite the laws of the land. Many examples in the play prove that Antigones character is very capable of making her own decisions in the name of justice. First, Antigone opposes Creons law and buries her slain brother because in her mind it was immoral not to. She does this because she is compassionate and loves her brother very much. Creon, however, believes that his laws must be upheld and would do anything to stay fresh any type rebelling. He is even more infuriated when he learns that a woman has broken his laws. He tries to show Antigone whos in charge by sentencing her to a life of imprisonment. Secondly, Antigone shows how determined she is by accepting her consequences with pride. She does not try to hide that she is responsible for breaking Creons laws, moreover, she takes all the credit. All the while she maintains her strength because she sincerely yours believes in her actions. These sorts of actions ultimately prove that Antigone is courageous and willing to stand up to men, which was completely against the norm at this time. Her spirit refu ses to submit to the role of a confounded woman like her sister Ismenes character does. Ismene is a coward and refuses to help her sister because she feared men. This fear propels her to turn her head to the disrespect that is been shown to her brother, Polyneices. Her character is a close image of the viewpoints of the male gender regarding women. She is subordinate and weak-willed. She refuses to stand up to Creon even though in her heart she knows that his laws are morally wrong.

Brown Vs.Board Of Education :: essays research papers

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) (USSC+)347 U.S. 483Argued December 9, 1952Reargued December 8, 1953Decided May 17, 1954APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE DISTRICT OF KANSAS* classSegregation of white and black children in the public schools of a State solely on the basis of race, pursuant to state laws permitting or requiring such segregation, denies to Negro children the pair protective covering of the laws guaranteed by the ordinal Amendment -- even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors of white and Negro schools may be equal.(a) The history of the Fourteenth Amendment is inconclusive as to its intended effect on public education.(b) The question presented in these cases must be determined not on the basis of conditions lively when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, but in the light of the full development of public education and its present place in American life throughout the Nation.(c) Where a State has un dertaken to provide an opportunity for an education in its public schools, such an opportunity is a right which must be made available to tout ensemble on equal terms.(d) Segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race deprives children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal.(e) The "separate but equal" doctrine adopted in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, has no place in the theme of public education.(f) The cases are restored to the docket for further argument on specified questions relating to the forms of the decrees.OpinionWARRENMR. CHIEF JUSTICE WARREN delivered the opinion of the Court.These cases come to us from the States of Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware. They are premised on different facts and different local conditions, but a common legal question justifies their consideration together in this consolidated opinion.In ea ch of the cases, minors of the Negro race, through their legal representatives, seek the aid of the courts in obtaining admission to the public schools of their community on a unsegregated basis. In each instance, they had been denied admission to schools attended by white children under laws requiring or permitting segregation according to race. This segregation was alleged to deprive the plaintiffs of the equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment. In each of the cases other than the Delaware case, a three-judge federal district court denied relief to the plaintiffs on the so-called "separate but equal" doctrine announced by this Court in Plessy v.